Unit 8: Motivation, Emotion, Stress, and Health

Module 37: Motivational Concepts

Motivation

• A need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal.
  
  

• Perspectives:
  
  

  • Instinct Theory
    
    

  • Drive-Reduction Theory
    
    

  • Arousal Theory
    
    

  • Hierarchy of Needs
    
    

Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology

• Instincts: Complex behaviors with fixed patterns across species; not learned.
  
  

Drive-Reduction Theory

• A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates satisfaction.
  
  

• Aim: Homeostasis – maintaining a steady internal state (e.g., body temperature, blood sugar).
  
  

Incentives

• Push-Pull Theory: Needs push, incentives pull.
  
  

• Example: Hunger drive increases when smelling bread (incentive).
  
  

Arousal Theory

• Humans seek optimum levels of arousal, not elimination.
  
  

• Example: Children explore even without need-based drive.
  
  

• Yerkes-Dodson Law:
  
  

  • Simple tasks → high arousal = better performance.
    
    

  • Complex tasks → low arousal = better performance.
    
    

Psychological Needs (McClelland, 1961, 1987)

• nAff: Need for affiliation and esteem.
  
  

• nPow: Need for control and prestige.
  
  

• nAch: Need to meet goals and succeed.
  
  

Dweck’s Self-Theory of Motivation

• Fixed mindset: Intelligence unchangeable → external locus → give up easily.
  
  

• Growth mindset: Intelligence changeable → internal locus → motivated, resilient.
  
  

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Basic physiological needs (e.g., hunger) must be satisfied before psychological needs (e.g., achievement).
  
  

Module 38: Hunger Motivation

Physiology of Hunger

• Stomach pangs signal hunger.
  
  

• Tsang (1938): Rats without stomachs still felt hunger → hunger is also brain-based.
  
  

• Glucose: Low levels trigger hunger; insulin decreases glucose.
  
  

• Signals sent to the hypothalamus.
  
  

Hypothalamic Centers

• Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): Stimulates hunger.
  
  

  • Low glucose → orexin released → triggers eating.
    
    

• Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH): Suppresses hunger.
  
  

  • Leptin: Signals VMH that enough has been eaten.
    
    

Hormones Influencing Hunger

Hormone

Tissue

Response

Orexin ↑

Hypothalamus

Increases hunger

Ghrelin ↑

Stomach

Increases hunger

Insulin ↑

Pancreas

Increases hunger

Leptin ↑

Fat cells

Decreases hunger

PYY ↑

Digestive tract

Decreases hunger

Set-Point Theory

• Set Point: The weight the body strives to maintain.
  
  

• Basal Metabolic Rate: Body’s resting energy expenditure.
  
  

Psychology of Hunger

• Memory influences hunger (amnesiacs eat repeatedly).
  
  

• Taste Preferences: Influenced by biology (sweet/salty) & culture.
  
  

Obesity

• Health risks: Heart disease, diabetes, hypertension.
  
  

• Causes:
  
  

  • Set point & metabolism issues.
    
    

  • Genetics.
    
    

  • Low activity.
    
    

  • Social influences.
    
    

Module 39: Sexual Motivation

Physiology of Sex

• Masters & Johnson (1966): Four stages of sexual response:
  
  

  1. Excitement: Genital prep; increased heart rate.
     
     

  2. Plateau: Peak of changes.
     
     

  3. Orgasm: Muscle contractions; sexual climax.
     
     

  4. Resolution: Return to normal; refractory period (in males).
     
     

Hormonal Influence

• Testosterone: Male hormone; constant.
  
  

• Estrogen: Female hormone; peaks during fertility.
  
  

Psychology of Sex

• Unlike hunger, sex is not essential for individual survival.
  
  

• Influences:
  
  

  • External stimuli: Pornography → arousal → habituation with exposure.
    
    

  • Internal stimuli: Imagination, dreams → strong sexual arousal.
    
    

Module 41: Emotion, Stress & Health

Components of Emotion

1. Physiological activation
   
   

2. Expressive behaviors
   
   

3. Conscious experience
   
   

Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange: Arousal precedes emotion.
  
  

• Cannon-Bard: Arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.
  
  

• Two-Factor Theory (Schachter & Singer): Emotion = arousal + cognitive label.
  
  

Cognition and Emotion

• Spillover Effect: Arousal from one event affects the next.
  
  

• Zajonc & LeDoux: Some emotions occur without thinking.
  
  

• Lazarus: Appraisal influences emotion.
  
  

Physiological Aspects

• ANS arouses the body during emotions.
  
  

• Moderate arousal → best performance (depends on task difficulty).
  
  

• Amygdala activation varies (fear vs. anger).
  
  

• Left hemisphere: Positive emotions. Right: Negative.
  
  

Module 42: Expressed Emotion

Nonverbal Communication

• Emotions are shown through facial expressions, body language, and voice tone.
  
  

• Angry faces detected faster in crowds.
  
  

Gender Differences

• Women: Better at reading and expressing emotions.
  
  

Culture & Emotion

• Facial expressions (basic emotions) are universally recognized.
  
  

Facial Feedback

• Facial expressions influence emotional experience (e.g., furrowing brows = more sadness).
  
  

Module 43: Stress and Health

Stress

• Stress: The process of perceiving/responding to events (stressors).
  
  

  • Catastrophes, life changes, daily hassles.
    
    

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) (Hans Selye)

1. Alarm
   
   

2. Resistance
   
   

3. Exhaustion
   
   

Tend and Befriend Response

• People (esp. women) support and bond under stress.
  
  

• Men: Withdraw, drink, aggression.
  
  

Module 44: Stress and Illness

Health Effects of Stress

• Psychophysiological Illness: Stress-induced physical issues (e.g., headaches).
  
  

• Psychoneuroimmunology: Study of mind-body-immune interaction.
  
  

Immune System

• B Lymphocytes: Fight bacteria.
  
  

• T Lymphocytes: Attack viruses, cancer.
  
  

Stress-Related Diseases

• AIDS: Stress speeds progression.
  
  

• Cancer: Stress weakens immune defense.
  
  

• Heart Disease: Type A personality increases risk.