Unit 7: Cognition - Memory, Thinking, and Language

Module 31: Studying and Building Memory

Memory Definition

• Memory is an indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.
  
  

Stages of Memory

1. Encoding: Incoming sensory information is converted for storage.
   
   

2. Storage: Information is retained in memory.
   
   

3. Retrieval: Information is recovered from memory when it is needed.
   
   

Information Processing Model

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model:
  
  

  • Sensory Memory
    
    

  • Short-Term Memory (STM)
    
    

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM)
    
    

Problems with the Model:

• Some information skips stages and enters long-term memory automatically.
  
  

• We selectively attend to important sensory information.
  
  

• Short-term memory is more complex than suggested.
  
  

Working Memory

• Alan Baddeley (2002): Working memory includes auditory & visual processing controlled by the central executive via an episodic buffer.
  
  

Encoding: Getting Information In

Types of Encoding:

• Automatic Processing:
  
  

  • Some info (e.g., routes) processed automatically.
    
    

  • Leads to implicit memory: procedural, conditioned learning (unconscious).
    
    

• Effortful Processing:
  
  

  • Requires attention for new/unusual info (e.g., phone numbers).
    
    

  • Leads to explicit (declarative) memories: consciously acquired.
    
    

What We Process Automatically

• Space, Time, Frequency.
  
  

• Occurs simultaneously with effortful processing.
  
  

Effortful Processing

• With practice, effortful tasks become automatic.
  
  

Sensory Memory

• Sperling (1960):
  
  

  • Whole Report: Items not rehearsed due to short exposure.
    
    

  • Partial Report: Sensory memory has larger capacity than thought.
    
    

  • Time Delay: Longer delay = more memory loss.
    
    

• Duration of sensory memory varies by sense.
  
  

Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)

• Capacity: 7 ± 2 items (George Miller, 1956).
  
  

• Chunking increases capacity.
  
  

• Duration: ~20 seconds (Brown/Peterson, 1958).
  
  

Long-Term Memory

• Unlimited capacity.
  
  

Types:

• Declarative (Explicit): Facts, data, events.
  
  

  • Episodic: Personal experiences.
    
    

  • Semantic: General knowledge.
    
    

• Procedural (Implicit): Skills, "how to do" things.
  
  

Organizing Information for Encoding

• Chunking: Grouping into meaningful units (e.g., HOMES, PEMDAS).
  
  

• Hierarchies: Broad concepts subdivided.
  
  

• Mnemonics: Memory aids using imagery/organization.
  
  

  • Method of Loci: Visualize locations tied to items.
    
    

  • Link Method: Visual associations.
    
    

Rehearsal

• Herman Ebbinghaus: More rehearsal → better retention.
  
  

• Memory Effects:
  
  

  • Next-in-Line Effect: Forget what the person before you said.
    
    

  • Spacing Effect: Spread out rehearsal = better retention.
    
    

  • Serial Position Effect: Recall first/last items best.
    
    

• Testing Effect: Repeated self-testing improves memory (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).
  
  

Levels of Processing

1. Meaning: Deep processing = stronger recognition.
   
   

2. Images: Visual encoding aids retention.
   
   

3. Organization: Helps chunk info.
   
   

Module 32: Memory, Storage, and Retrieval

Brain Structures:

• Hippocampus: Processes explicit memories.
  
  

• Cerebellum: Processes implicit memories.
  
  

• Basal Ganglia: Forms procedural memories.
  
  

Types of Long-Term Memory:

• Explicit (Declarative):
  
  

  • Processed in hippocampus.
    
    

  • Facts, personal experiences.
    
    

• Implicit (Procedural):
  
  

  • Processed in cerebellum.
    
    

  • Skills, conditioning.
    
    

Stress & Memory:

• Heightened emotions strengthen memory.
  
  

• Prolonged stress disrupts memory.
  
  

Flashbulb Memory

• Vivid memory of an emotional event.
  
  

• Not always accurate.
  
  

Synaptic Changes

• Kandel & Schwartz (1982): Serotonin release increases neural efficiency.
  
  

• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Enhanced synapse firing after learning.
  
  

• Drugs can enhance or inhibit LTP.
  
  

Storing Memories

• Penfield (1967): Old memories may be etched in the brain.
  
  

• Loftus (1980): Most brain stimulations don’t cause vivid memory recall.
  
  

• Lashley (1950): Partial memory remains despite brain damage.
  
  

Retrieval

• Recognition: Identify items (e.g., multiple choice).
  
  

• Recall: Retrieve info without cues.
  
  

• Relearning: Less effort/time to learn again.
  
  

Retrieval Cues

• Priming: Activating associations.
  
  

• Context Effect: Better recall in the same environment (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
  
  

• Mood-Congruent Memory: Recall matches current mood.
  
  

Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improvement

Forgetting

• Poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
  
  

Types of Amnesia:

• Anterograde: Cannot make new memories (Patient HM).
  
  

• Retrograde: Cannot recall past info (due to injury/illness).
  
  

Forgetting Causes:

• Encoding Failure: Didn’t process info.
  
  

• Storage Decay: Memory fades (Ebbinghaus forgetting curve).
  
  

• Retrieval Failure: Info stored but inaccessible (Tip-of-the-Tongue).
  
  

Interference:

• Proactive: Old info disrupts new.
  
  

• Retroactive: New info disrupts old.
  
  

• Sleep reduces retroactive interference.
  
  

Motivated Forgetting:

• Repression: Push away anxiety-inducing memories.
  
  

Memory Construction:

• We filter/fill in gaps in memory.
  
  

Misinformation Effect:

• Incorporating misleading info into memories.
  
  

Source Amnesia:

• Misattributing memory sources.
  
  

Déjà Vu:

• Familiarity with a situation due to unconscious retrieval.
  
  

False Memories:

• Hard to distinguish real vs. false.
  
  

• False Memory Syndrome: Identity centered on false traumatic memory.
  
  

Children's Eyewitness Recall:

• Unreliable with leading questions.
  
  

• Neutral interviews = more accurate.
  
  

Consensus on Childhood Abuse:

• Abuse happens, people forget, recovered memories are common but not always reliable.
  
  

Improving Memory:

• Rehearse.
  
  

• Make material meaningful.
  
  

• Use cues & mnemonics.
  
  

• Minimize interference.
  
  

• Sleep.
  
  

• Test yourself.
  
  

Module 34: Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity

Thinking (Cognition):

• Mental activity when processing info: knowing, understanding, remembering, communicating.
  
  

Concepts:

• Mental grouping of similar items.
  
  

• Organized into category hierarchies.
  
  

Development of Concepts:

• Definitions: Formal characteristics.
  
  

• Prototypes: Mental images/examples.
  
  

Types of Thinking:

• Convergent: Narrow to one solution.
  
  

• Divergent: Multiple solutions (creative thinking).
  
  

Creativity (Sternberg):

1. Expertise.
   
   

2. Imaginative thinking.
   
   

3. Venturesome personality.
   
   

4. Intrinsic motivation.
   
   

5. Creative environment.
   
   

Module 35: Solving Problems and Making Decisions

Problem Solving Methods:

• Trial and Error.
  
  

• Algorithms: Logical, step-by-step, accurate but slow.
  
  

• Heuristics: Experience-based, faster but error-prone.
  
  

• Insight: Sudden realization (Köhler's chimps).
  
  

Obstacles in Problem Solving:

• Confirmation Bias.
  
  

• Fixation: Stuck on one approach.
  
  

• Mental Set.
  
  

• Functional Fixedness.
  
  

Heuristics:

• Representative: Based on prototypes.
  
  

• Availability: Based on readily available info.
  
  

Biases in Decision-Making:

• Overconfidence.
  
  

• Exaggerated Fear.
  
  

• Belief Bias.
  
  

• Belief Perseverance.
  
  

• Framing Effect.
  
  

Intuition:

• Pros: Fast, adaptive.
  
  

• Cons: Can be emotional, biased.
  
  

Module 36: Thinking and Language

Language Structure:

• Phonemes: Smallest sound units.
  
  

• Morphemes: Smallest meaning units.
  
  

• Grammar: Language rules.
  
  

  • Semantics: Meaning.
    
    

  • Syntax: Sentence structure.
    
    

Language Development:

• Babbling: 4 months.
  
  

• One-Word: 12 months.
  
  

• Two-Word: 18-24 months.
  
  

• Longer Phrases: 2+ years.
  
  

Language Theories:

• Skinner: Learned by association, imitation, reinforcement.
  
  

• Chomsky: Inborn universal grammar.
  
  

• Critical Periods: Early learning stages crucial.
  
  

Language and Thought:

• Linguistic Determinism (Whorf): Language shapes thinking.
  
  

• Thinking in Images: Visual thinking aids physical tasks.