Unit 11 Notes: Testing and Individual Differences

Module 60: Introduction to Intelligence

• Key Questions:
  
  

  • Do we have an inborn general mental capacity (intelligence)?
    
    

  • Can we quantify this capacity as a meaningful number?
    
    

• Intelligence: The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
  
  

  • Psychologists consider intelligence a concept, not a tangible "thing."
    
    

  • Reification Error: Viewing an abstract concept like intelligence as if it were a concrete, measurable thing.
    
    

Controversies:

1. Is intelligence a single ability or multiple specific abilities?
   
   

2. Can neuroscience locate and measure intelligence in the brain?
   
   

General Intelligence (g):

• Charles Spearman (1863-1945):
  
  

  • Proposed g (general intelligence) underlies specific mental abilities (s factors) through factor analysis.
    
    

  • Example: Verbal intelligence (vocabulary + paragraph comprehension).
    
    

L.L. Thurstone:

• Identified 7 clusters of primary mental abilities:
  
  

  1. Word Fluency
     
     

  2. Verbal Comprehension
     
     

  3. Spatial Ability
     
     

  4. Perceptual Speed
     
     

  5. Numerical Ability
     
     

  6. Inductive Reasoning
     
     

  7. Memory
     
     

• Later research found weak relationships among these clusters, suggesting g may still exist.
  
  

Contemporary Intelligence Theories:

• Howard Gardner (1983, 1999):
  
  

  • Proposed 8 intelligences (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist).
    
    

  • Speculated about a 9th: Existential Intelligence (questions of life, death, existence).
    
    

• Robert Sternberg:
  
  

  • Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
    
    

    • Analytical
      
      

    • Creative
      
      

    • Practical (negatively correlated with university success).
      
      

Special Intelligence Topics:

• Savant Syndrome:
  
  

  • Individuals with limited mental abilities but an exceptional skill.
    
    

• Emotional Intelligence:
  
  

  • Ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions (Salovey et al., 2005, popularized by Daniel Goleman, 1995).
    
    

  • Criticized for potentially stretching the definition of intelligence.
    
    

• Creativity:
  
  

  • The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
    
    

  • Related traits:
    
    

    1. Expertise
       
       

    2. Imaginative Thinking
       
       

    3. Adventuresome Personality
       
       

    4. Intrinsic Motivation
       
       

    5. Creative Environment
       
       

• Thinking Types:
  
  

  • Convergent Thinking: Single correct answer.
    
    

  • Divergent Thinking: Multiple possible solutions (linked to creativity).
    
    

Neurological Correlates:

• Brain size moderately correlates with intelligence (+.40).
  
  

• High IQ linked to:
  
  

  • Faster stimulus perception.
    
    

  • Quicker memory retrieval.
    
    

  • Faster brain response times.
    
    

Module 61: Assessing Intelligence

• Intelligence Testing:
  
  

  • Assessing mental aptitudes and comparing individuals using numerical scores.
    
    

Key Contributors:

• Alfred Binet: Developed tests to predict children's future school performance.
  
  

• Lewis Terman: Adapted Binet’s test for the U.S. - Stanford-Binet Test.
  
  

  • Introduced IQ Formula: IQ=Mental AgeChronological Age×100IQ = \frac{Mental \ Age}{Chronological \ Age} \times 100IQ=Chronological AgeMental Age​×100
    
    

Eugenics:

• Coined by Francis Galton.
  
  

• Advocated selective breeding for "superior" traits.
  
  

Types of Tests:

• Aptitude Tests: Predict ability to learn a new skill.
  
  

• Achievement Tests: Reflect learned knowledge.
  
  

David Wechsler:

• Developed WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) and WISC for children.
  
  

Principles of Test Construction:

1. Standardization: Establishing norms using a representative sample.
   
   

   • Normal Curve: Bell-shaped pattern.
     
     

   • Flynn Effect: Average IQ scores have risen by 27 points over 60 years.
     
     

2. Reliability: Consistency of results.
   
   

   • Split-half, Parallel-forms, Test-retest methods.
     
     

3. Validity: Measures what it is supposed to.
   
   

   • Content Validity
     
     

   • Predictive Validity
     
     

Module 62: The Dynamics of Intelligence

• Intelligence stabilizes around age 7.
  
  

Aging and Intelligence:

• Cross-Sectional Studies: Younger outperform older (suggests decline).
  
  

• Longitudinal Studies: Intelligence remains stable or increases.
  
  

• Crystallized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge; increases with age.
  
  

• Fluid Intelligence: Speedy, abstract reasoning; decreases after 20s-30s.
  
  

Extremes of Intelligence:

• Intellectually Disabled: IQ < 70.
  
  

• Highly Intelligent: IQ > 135.
  
  

• High IQ individuals are healthier, well-adjusted, and academically successful.
  
  

Module 63: Genetic & Environmental Influences

Genetic Influences:

• Twin, family, and adoption studies show strong genetic contributions.
  
  

Adoption Studies:

• Adopted children's verbal abilities correlate only slightly with adoptive parents.
  
  

Environmental Influences:

1. Fraternal twins raised together → similar scores.
   
   

2. Identical twins raised apart → slightly less similar scores.
   
   

• Early Intervention:
  
  

  • Lack of care → poor development.
    
    

  • Romanian orphanages → developmental delays.
    
    

• Schooling:
  
  

  • Correlates with higher IQ.
    
    

Module 64: Group Differences & Bias

Gender Differences:

• Girls: Better at spelling, verbal skills, object location, and sensory sensitivity.
  
  

• Boys: Greater extremes in achievement, better at math problem-solving.
  
  

Ethnic Differences:

1. Racial groups differ in average IQ scores.
   
   

2. High scorers more likely to achieve higher education/income.
   
   

Environmental Effects:

• Genetics among races are similar.
  
  

• Race = social construct.
  
  

• Asian students outperform North American students in math due to effort, not ability.
  
  

• White & Black infants perform equally in predictive intelligence tests.
  
  

• Different groups have excelled at different times historically.
  
  

Bias in Testing:

• Aptitude Tests: Culturally biased but still predict performance across groups.
  
  

• Stereotype Threat: Fear of confirming negative stereotypes affects test performance (e.g., among African-Americans, women).